Centrifugal load magnitudes can be specified as , where is the angular velocity in radians per time. ABAQUS/Standard uses the specified material density (see “Density,” Section 9.2.1), together with the load magnitude and the axis of rotation, to calculate the loading. Alternatively, a centrifugal load magnitude can be given as , where is the material density (mass per unit volume) for solid or shell elements or the mass per unit length for beam elements and is the angular velocity in radians per time. This type of centrifugal load formulation does not account for large volume changes. The two centrifugal load types will produce slightly different local results for first-order elements; uses a consistent mass matrix, and uses a lumped mass matrix in calculating the load forces and load stiffnesses.

The magnitude of the centrifugal load can vary with time during a step according to an amplitude definition, as described in “Prescribed conditions: overview,” Section 19.1.1. However, the position and orientation of the axis around which the structure rotates, which is defined by giving a point on the axis and the axis direction, are always applied at the beginning of the step and remain fixed during the step.

*DLOAD
element number or element set, CENTRIF, , coord1, coord2, coord3, comp1,
comp2, comp3
*DLOAD
element number or element set, CENT, , coord1, coord2, coord3, comp1, 
comp2, comp3

Coriolis force is defined by specifying the Coriolis distributed load type and giving the load magnitude as , where is the material density (mass per unit volume) for solid and shell elements or the mass per unit length for beam elements and is the angular velocity in radians per time. The magnitude of the Coriolis load can vary with time during a step according to an amplitude definition, as described in “Prescribed conditions: overview,” Section 19.1.1. However, the position and orientation of the axis around which the structure rotates, which is defined by giving a point on the axis and the axis direction, are always applied at the beginning of the step and remain fixed during the step.

The Coriolis load formulation does not account for large volume changes.

*DLOAD
element number or element set, CORIO, , coord1, coord2, coord3, 
comp1, comp2, comp3

Rotary acceleration loads are defined by specifying the rotary acceleration distributed load type and giving the rotary acceleration magnitude, , in radians/time², which includes any precessional motion effects. The axis of rotary acceleration must be defined by giving a point on the axis and the axis direction. ABAQUS/Standard uses the specified material density (see “Density,” Section 9.2.1), together with the rotary acceleration magnitude and axis of rotary acceleration, to calculate the loading. The magnitude of the load can vary with time during a step according to an amplitude definition, as described in “Prescribed conditions: overview,” Section 19.1.1. However, the position and orientation of the axis around which the structure rotates are always applied at the beginning of the step and remain fixed during the step.

Rotary acceleration loads are not applicable to axisymmetric elements.

*DLOAD
element number or element set, ROTA, , coord1, coord2, coord3, 
comp1, comp2, comp3

General rigid-body acceleration loading can be specified in ABAQUS/Standard by using a combination of the gravity, centrifugal (), and rotary acceleration load types.

By default, the components of the traction vector are specified with respect to the global directions. You can also refer to a local coordinate system (see “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) for the direction components of these tractions. See “Examples: using a local coordinate system to define shear directions” below for an example of a traction load defined with respect to a local coordinate system.

*DLOAD, ORIENTATION=name
*DSLOAD, ORIENTATION=name

The traction load acts in the fixed direction in a geometrically linear analysis or if a non-follower load is specified in a geometrically nonlinear analysis (which includes a perturbation step about a geometrically nonlinear base state).

If a follower load is specified in a geometrically nonlinear analysis, the traction load rotates rigidly with the surface using the following algorithm. The reference configuration traction vector, , is decomposed by ABAQUS into two components: a normal component,

The following two examples illustrate the difference between applying follower and non-follower tractions in a geometrically nonlinear analysis. Both examples refer to a single 4-node plane strain element (element 1). In Step 1 of the first example a follower traction load is applied to face 1 of element 1, and a non-follower traction load is applied to face 2 of element 1. The element is rotated rigidly 90° counterclockwise in Step 1 and then another 90° in Step 2. As illustrated in Figure 19.4.3–1, the follower traction rotates with face 1, while the non-follower traction on face 2 always acts in the global -direction.

*STEP, NLGEOM
 Step 1 - Rotate square 90 degrees
...
*DLOAD, FOLLOWER=YES
 1, TRVEC1, 1., 0., -1., 0.
*DLOAD, FOLLOWER=NO
 1, TRVEC2, 1., 1., 0., 0.
*END STEP
*STEP, NLGEOM
 Step 2 - Rotate square another 90 degrees
...
*END STEP

In the second example the element is rotated 90° counterclockwise with no load applied in Step 1. In Step 2 a follower traction load is applied to face 1, and a non-follower traction load is applied to face 2. The element is then rotated rigidly by another 90°. The direction of the follower load is specified with respect to the original configuration. As illustrated in Figure 19.4.3–2, the follower traction rotates with face 1, while the non-follower traction on face 2 always acts in the global -direction.

*STEP, NLGEOM
 Step 1 - Rotate square 90 degrees
...
*END STEP
*STEP, NLGEOM
 Step 2 - Rotate square another 90 degrees
*DLOAD, FOLLOWER=YES
 1, TRVEC1, 1., 0., -1., 0.
*DLOAD, FOLLOWER=NO
 1, TRVEC2, 1., 1., 0., 0.
...
*END STEP

By default, the components of the shear traction vector are specified with respect to the global directions. You can also refer to a local coordinate system (see “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) for the direction components of these tractions.

*DLOAD, ORIENTATION=name
*DSLOAD, ORIENTATION=name

It is sometimes convenient to give shear and general traction directions with respect to a local coordinate system. The following two examples illustrate the specification of the direction of a shear traction on a cylinder using global coordinates in one case and a local cylindrical coordinate system in the other case. The axis of symmetry of the cylinder coincides with the global -axis. A surface named SURFA has been defined on the outside of the cylinder.

In the first example the direction of the shear traction, , is given in global coordinates. The sense of the resulting shear tractions using global coordinates is shown in Figure 19.4.3–3(a).

*STEP
 Step 1 - Specify shear directions in global coordinates
...
*DSLOAD
 SURFA, TRSHR, 1., 0., 1., 0.
...
*END STEP

In the second example the direction of the shear traction, , is given with respect to a local cylindrical coordinate system whose axis coincides with the axis of the cylinder. The sense of the resulting shear tractions using the local cylindrical coordinate system is shown in Figure 19.4.3–3(b).

*ORIENTATION, NAME=CYLIN, SYSTEM=CYLINDRICAL
 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 1.
...
*STEP
 Step 1 - Specify shear directions in local cylindrical coordinates
...
*DSLOAD, ORIENTATION=CYLIN
 SURFA, TRSHR, 1., 0., 1., 0.
...
*END STEP

If you choose not to have a constant resultant, the traction vector is integrated over the surface in the current configuration, a surface that in general deforms in a geometrically nonlinear analysis. By default, all surface tractions are integrated over the surface in the current configuration.

*DLOAD, CONSTANT RESULTANT=NO
*DSLOAD, CONSTANT RESULTANT=NO

If you choose to have a constant resultant, the traction vector is integrated over the surface in the reference configuration, which is constant.

*DLOAD, CONSTANT RESULTANT=YES
*DSLOAD, CONSTANT RESULTANT=YES

The constant resultant method has certain advantages when a traction is used to model a distributed load with a known constant resultant. Consider the case of modeling a uniform dead load, magnitude , acting on a flat plate whose normal is in the -direction in a geometrically nonlinear analysis (Figure 19.4.3–4).

Distributed pressure loads can be specified on any elements.

*DLOAD
element number or element set, Pn or PnNU, magnitude
*DSLOAD
surface name, P or PNU, magnitude

To define hydrostatic pressure in ABAQUS/Standard, give the -coordinates of the zero pressure level (point  in Figure 19.4.3–5) and the level at which the hydrostatic pressure is defined (point  in Figure 19.4.3–5) in an element-based or surface-based distributed load definition. For levels above the zero pressure level, the hydrostatic pressure is zero.

In planar elements the hydrostatic head is in the -direction; for axisymmetric elements the -direction is the second coordinate.

*DLOAD
element number or element set, HPn, magnitude, -coordinate of point , 
-coordinate of point 
*DSLOAD
surface name, HP, magnitude, -coordinate of point , 
-coordinate of point 

You can specify external pressure, internal pressure, external hydrostatic pressure, or internal hydrostatic pressure on pipe or elbow elements. When pressure loads are applied, the effective outer or inner diameter must be specified in the element-based distributed load definition.

By default, the loads resulting from the pressure on the ends of the element are included: ABAQUS/Standard assumes a closed-end condition. Open-end loading can be specified in the element-based distributed load definition.

Closed-end conditions should be used in all but exceptional cases. Closed-end conditions correctly model the loading at pipe intersections, tight bends, corners, and cross-section changes; whereas open-end conditions require application of additional loads at such points. In straight sections and smooth bends the end loads of adjacent elements cancel each other precisely. The only case where closed-end conditions yield an incorrect end load occurs if the pressure at the end of a pipe is supported by an independent structure (such as a piston), which is rather unusual. An incorrect end load is also generated if a pressurized pipe is modeled with a mixture of pipe and beam elements. In that case closed-end conditions generate a physically non-existing force at the transition between pipe and beam elements. Such mixed modeling of a pipe is not recommended. Although open-end conditions can be used to eliminate incorrect end loads in these cases, it is usually better to use closed-end conditions in all pipe elements and to compensate for any unwanted end loads with explicitly defined nodal loads.

For pipe elements subjected to pressure loading, the effective axial force due to the pressure loads can be obtained by requesting output variable ESF1 (see “Beam element library,” Section 15.3.8).

*DLOAD
element number or element set, PE or PENU, magnitude, effective outer diameter, CLOSE (default) or OPEN

*DLOAD
element number or element set, PI or PINU, magnitude, effective inner diameter, CLOSE (default) or OPEN

*DLOAD
element number or element set, HPE, magnitude, effective outer diameter, CLOSE (default) or OPEN

*DLOAD
element number or element set, HPI, magnitude, effective inner diameter, CLOSE (default) or OPEN

Viscous pressure loads are defined by

Viscous pressure loading is most commonly applied in structural problems when you wish to damp out dynamic effects and, thus, reach static equilibrium in a minimal number of increments. A common example is the determination of springback in a sheet metal product after forming, in which case a viscous pressure would be applied to the faces of shell elements defining the sheet metal. An appropriate choice for the value of is important for using this technique effectively.

To compute , consider the infinite continuum elements described in “Infinite elements,” Section 14.2.1. In explicit dynamics those elements achieve an infinite boundary condition by applying a viscous normal pressure where the coefficient is given by ; is the density of the material at the surface, and is the value of the dilatational wave speed in the material (the infinite continuum elements also apply a viscous shear traction). For an isotropic, linear elastic material

For typical structural problems it is not desirable to absorb all of the energy (as is the case in the infinite elements). Typically is set equal to a small percentage (perhaps 1 or 2 percent) of as an effective way of minimizing ongoing dynamic effects. The coefficient should have a positive value.

*DLOAD
element number or element set, VPn, magnitude
*DSLOAD
surface name, VP, magnitude

In a geometrically linear analysis the edge load, , acts in the fixed direction defined by

If a non-follower load is specified in a geometrically nonlinear analysis (which includes a perturbation step about a geometrically nonlinear base state), the edge load, , acts in the fixed direction defined by

If a follower load is specified in a geometrically nonlinear analysis (which includes a perturbation step about a geometrically nonlinear base state), the components must be defined with respect to the reference configuration. The reference edge traction is defined as

By default, the components of the edge traction vector are specified with respect to the global directions. You can also refer to a local coordinate system (see “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) for the direction components of these tractions.

*DLOAD, ORIENTATION=name
*DSLOAD, ORIENTATION=name

If you choose not to have a constant resultant, an edge traction or moment is integrated over the edge in the current configuration, an edge whose length changes during a geometrically nonlinear analysis.

*DLOAD, CONSTANT RESULTANT=NO
*DSLOAD, CONSTANT RESULTANT=NO

If you choose to have a constant resultant, an edge traction or moment is integrated over the edge in the reference configuration, whose length is constant.

*DLOAD, CONSTANT RESULTANT=YES
*DSLOAD, CONSTANT RESULTANT=YES